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Corresponding author at: Neuropsychiatry and Neurorehabilitation Unit, Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Via D. L. Monza 20, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Lecco, Italy. Tel.: +39 031877111; fax: +39 031877499.
EEG and clinical features of 21 South Sudanese children with Nodding Syndrome (NS).
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NS is characterized by cognitive deficit and uncontrolled seizures.
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Cognitive deficit is independent of frequency of seizures and EEG abnormalities.
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Features of seizures and EEG suggest that valproic acid is the most appropriate antiepileptic drug.
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NS in South Sudan presents with features as in northern Uganda and more severe features than in Tanzania.
Abstract
Purpose
To describe the neurophysiological and clinical features of Nodding Syndrome (NS) in South Sudan.
Methods
The study was performed at the Epilepsy Service of “Usratuna” sited in Juba, South Sudan. The clinical history of each subject was collected along with an EEG tracing.
Results
Twenty-one children (10 females) were diagnosed with NS. Fifteen (72%) children were classified as Probable NS and six (28%) as Confirmed NS. They ranged in age between 6 and 14 years, and age at seizure onset ranged from 5 to 12 years. All the subjects presented with intellectual disability which was mild in severity in 12 (57%) cases, moderate in seven (33%) cases and severe in two (10%) cases. Interictal EEG was abnormal in 20 subjects. In 18 (85%) subjects, the EEG showed 2–3.5 Hz spike-and-wave discharges often intermingled with sharp waves. Intermittent light stimulation was normal. In 12 (57%) children, interictal abnormalities were activated by hyperventilation. Ictal EEG was obtained in three patients. In all ictal EEGs head nodding episodes came in clusters during hyperventilation. None of the patients achieved good seizure control even if all of them received antiepileptic treatment (carbamazepine alone [43%] or in association with phenobarbitone or phenytoin).
Conclusion
This study confirms that NS is an encephalopathy and intellectual disabilities are partially independent of seizure frequency and EEG pathological activity. Based on interictal and ictal EEG patterns and on the experience of other researchers, valproic acid would seem to be the first-choice antiepileptic drug. NS in South Sudan presents with clinical and neurophysiological features which are similar to those described in northern Uganda and more severe than in Tanzania.
]. Typical signs of NS include the occurrence of repetitive head nodding, variably associated with different types of seizures, neurologic and intellectual disability, delayed puberty and growth delay in children (age range generally between 5 and 15 years) [
]. At onset, the syndrome is characterized by frequent head-nodding episodes, occurring several times a week to many times a day, often triggered by eating or cold weather and accompanied by intellectual disability [
]. The head drops repeatedly toward the chest in cycles of 5–20 nods/min for several minutes. Head nodding episodes may be accompanied by automatisms, staring and unresponsiveness [
] videography, electromyography and electrocardiography, nodding episodes are epileptic manifestations; however their nature is still controversial (atonic seizures or atypical absences) [
]. The severity of the disease was associated with more severe EEG findings, with progressively more abnormal background activity to diffuse sub-continuous non-reacting theta–delta activity and loss of normal cerebral electrical architecture [
Owing to the devastating effects of this disorder on families and communities (loss of the ability to eat, risk of burns and drowning, dropping out of school), local authorities and national governments requested the assistance of the World Health Organization (WHO), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and other agencies [
]. To date the causes of NS are unknown. Associations with onchocerciasis and nutritional deficiencies or unidentified toxin exposure have been consistent features, but no definitive underlying cause has been identified [
]. Thousands (approximately 3000–8000) of cases have been reported only in geographic and familial clusterings from southern Tanzania, northern Uganda and South Sudan, suggesting a genetic etiology for the syndrome. For these reasons, studies comparing populations coming from different countries may be of great interest [
The aim of this study was to better characterize the clinical and neurophysiological spectrum of NS describing 21 children (10 females) from South Sudan studied from October 2012 to December 2013.
2. Methods
This study was performed at the Epilepsy Service sited in Juba, the capital of South Sudan, of “Usratuna” Health and Rehabilitation Center started and promoted by the Italian Non-Governmental Organization “OVCI La Nostra Famiglia”, specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy. It is the only service exclusively dedicated to this pathology nationwide. The Center has been operating since the beginning of the 1980s and has become a reference point for this pathology attracting patients from Juba and neighboring areas. The daily clinical routine (more than 40 patients a day and about 2200 patients a year) is managed by two clinical officers helped by a nurse specifically trained in the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy. Two Italian child neurologists take turns every year to supervise the clinical activity on-site and provide training and education. The two clinical officers are native speakers of South Sudanese and have a good command of English. This has helped the two Italian neurologists in their training activity and in monitoring the clinical activity on-site. At the same time, however, it must be kept in mind that clinical officers do not receive the same training as medical doctors or neurologists. To facilitate the visit and enable standardized data collection for every patient attending the Center, a detailed questionnaire was developed (see File S1 and File S2) in order to collect information such as the patient's full name, sex and age, age at first episode, seizure type and frequency, previous drug treatment (if any). In addition, data were collected about the presence, if any, of epilepsy in the family. All subjects receive a neurological examination and information about their daily activities (level of education, behavior, social interaction, etc.) is collected to define the severity of their intellectual disability. Severe intellectual disability is defined as a significant impairment in daily living activities (eating, dressing, personal care, etc.). Patients are seen once a month or once every 2 months; the course of epilepsy (improvement, stabilization or worsening) is evaluated and antiepileptic treatment is confirmed or changed. Selected cases (such as NS patients) undergo an EEG during wakefulness (since October 2012). Each tracing is sent to Italy for interpretation, reporting and therapeutic recommendations. These exams and testing were performed on our NS patients from October 2012 to December 2013. A clinical follow-up was obtained in most cases.
EEGs were performed on all 21 subjects using a portable machine (MICROMED, BRAIN QUIK System Plus ANDYEEG 25 class 1). A standard 10–20 montage (STANDARD MICROMED 18 leads: four inner right, four outer right, two median Fz-Cz and Cz-Pz, four inner left and four outer left) was used.
All clinical data of NS patients collected during daily routine at Usratuna Center (see supporting information) were entered anonymously into an “Excel” database, that was made available to Italian researchers along with EEG tracings. No informed consent was obtained because the analysis was carried out on pseudo-anonymized data. The Italian researchers who analyses the data and wrote the paper were blind to the patients’ identities which could only be traced by looking into the files at “Usratuna” Health and Rehabilitation Center. The files were accessible only to the two clinical officers, living in Juba.
In order to compare the data collected with reports from Uganda and Tanzania, a complete review of the literature was made and cases reported were collected and summarized (see Table 1).
Table 1Features of Nodding Syndrome in South Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania: our series and a review of literature.
The study methodology was approved by the local Ethics Committee of Scientific Institute Eugenio Medea on May 12, 2015.
3. Results
Twenty-one South Sudanese subjects (10 females) were diagnosed with NS. They came from seven different regions of South Sudan: Rumbek, Mundri, Maridi, Yambio, Wau, Lui and Juba (for detailed information on NS Patients, see Table 2). Three cases presented with a family history of NS (cases 16 and 18 are siblings (brother and sister); case 1 has two siblings, one female and one male, not yet included in this series). Follow-up evaluations ranged from 6 month to 6 years (mean 3 years and 3 months).
Table 2Clinical and neurophysiological features of 21 South Sudanese children with NS.
Pt
Gender
Age (yrs)
Origin
Head nodding age at onset (yrs)
Other seizures
Interictal EEG abnormalities #
EEG abnormalities during wakefulness (%)
Background activity
Nodding Syndrome classification #
Intellectual disability
AEDs
1
F
11
Rumbek
10
FS
1″–8″ FT 2–2.5 Hz SW discharges, right T sharp waves
<10%
O alpha (8–9 Hz) rhythms
Probable
Mild MR
CBZ
2
F
12
Mundri
6
FS with sg
2″–5″ FCT 1–2.5 Hz SW discharges
30%
Diffuse 5–6 Hz rhythms; O alpha (8–9 Hz) rhythms
Probable
Mild MR
PB, CBZ, PHT
3
M
12
Maridi
9
FS
1″–2″ FCP sharp waves discharges in theta range (4–5 Hz)
<10%
FCP and midline theta rhythms (4–7 Hz); O alpha (8–9 Hz) rhythms
Probable
Moderate MR
CBZ
4
M
6
Mundri
6
FS
1″–2″ FC sharp wave discharges in theta range (4–5 Hz)
<10%
FCP and midline theta rhythms (4–5 Hz); O unstable theta (6–7 Hz) rhythms
# Interictal EEG abnormalities and NS classification according to the “International Scientific Meeting on Nodding Syndrome”, Meeting Report, Kampala Uganda, 13 July–1 August 2012.
Fifteen children (72%) were classified as “Probable NS” as they satisfied the major and minor criteria (seizure onset, nodding seizures, intellectual disability, and other seizures types), while six children (28%) were classified as “Confirmed NS” since a documented nodding episode was reported. No patient was defined as “Suspected NS”. According to the classification proposed by Winkler et al. [
], all the patients presented with “Head Nodding plus (HN plus), with other seizure types”. Fifteen subjects displayed one additional type of seizure (11 subjects: focal seizures, three subjects: focal seizures with secondary generalization, one subject: generalized seizures), while six subjects had two other types of seizures (both focal and generalized seizures).
At the last visit, the patients’ age ranged between 6 and 14 years, while seizure onset was between 5 and 12 years.
Interictal EEG (see two examples in Fig. 1, Fig. 2) was abnormal in all the patients but one (patient n. 18). The background activity showed 4–7 rhythms in 17 patients. This abnormal activity was diffuse in 12 patients, non-reactive to eye opening in seven of them, and distributed over the fronto-centro-temporal and midline regions in other five patients. The background activity revealed diffuse alpha rhythms in two patients, while it was normal in one patient. In 18 children (85%), the EEG showed bilateral epileptiform abnormalities: 2–3.5 Hz spike and wave discharges often intermingled with sharp waves. The epileptiform abnormalities were diffuse in one patient and distributed over the fronto-temporal or fronto-centro-temporal and midline regions in 15 cases, and over the centro-parieto-temporal regions in two cases. In addition, focal sharp-waves – more frequently occurring over temporal regions – were recorded in five patients. Response to intermittent light stimulation (ILS) was normal in all the subjects. In 12 patients (57%), interictal epileptiform abnormalities were activated by hyperventilation.
Fig. 1Interictal EEG in patient 8. The BA shows diffuse 4–7 Hz rhythms. This abnormal activity is reactive to eye closure (10 Hz occipital rhythms).
Fig. 2Interictal EEG in patient 16. The BA shows diffuse 5–7 Hz rhythms. High-amplitude 2 Hz spike and wave discharges with intermingled sharp waves are also present. The epileptiform abnormalities are distributed over the fronto-temporal and midline regions.
Ictal EEG was obtained in three patients (patients n. 7, 17 and 19) and showed nodding episodes in clusters during hyperventilation (see two examples in Fig. 3, Fig. 4). In all of them a high-amplitude, bi- or triphasic slow wave with an inverse phase reversal over the vertex region was detected. The slow wave was diffuse but dominant over the frontal regions and lasted 0.5–1.2 s (patient n. 7), 0.8–1.2 s (patient n. 17), 0.8–1.4 s (patient n. 19). The slow wave could either be or not be followed by an electrodecremental pattern with diffuse fast activity for 2–4 s (patient n. 7), for 1–2 s (patient n. 17) and for 1 s (patient n. 19). This ictal pattern was repeated every 3–10 s in almost periodic sequences and the duration of the cluster was 8 min in patient n. 7 and 3 min in patients n. 17 and 19. During the cluster, the EEG showed a slowing background activity with disappearance of alpha rhythms and activation of interictal abnormalities over the fronto-temporal regions.
Fig. 3Ictal EEG in patient 7. One minute and 20 s after starting hyperventilation a cluster of seizures begins: a periodic sequence of four episodes (black arrows) characterized by a high-amplitude bi- or triphasic slow wave (0.5–1.2 s), dominant over the frontal regions, followed by an electrodecremental pattern with diffuse fast activity for 2–5 s. During the cluster the background activity is slow and alpha rhythms disappear.
Fig. 4Ictal EEG in patient 19. At the end of hyperventilation a cluster of seizures begins: a high-amplitude, bi- or triphasic slow wave (0.8–1.4 s) with an inverse phase reversal over the vertex region is present. The slow wave is diffuse but dominant over the frontal regions and is rarely followed by diffuse fast activity for 1 s. At the beginning the slow wave is repeated every 20″ (first three slow wave) and then every 3–5 s in an almost periodic sequence. The duration of the cluster is 3 min. During the cluster the EEG shows a slowing of BA.
All the subjects displayed intellectual disability, which was mild in 12 (57%) cases, moderate in seven (33%) cases and severe in two (almost 10%) cases. The severity of the cognitive deficit did not always correlate with the presence/absence of epileptiform abnormalities on the EEG (see Table 2 for details).
All the 21 NS subjects herein described were on antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Treatment was adequate in regards to time (6 months or more on therapy) and dosing in most patients, even if the actual compliance to therapy was not always clear. Carbamazepine (CBZ 10 mg/kg/day) was used in 100% of cases, either in monotherapy in nine subjects (43%) and in association with Phenobarbitone (PB; 3 mg/kg/day) in nine cases or phenytoin (PHT; 5 mg/kg/day) in three cases. These are the only AEDs available in South Sudan at this time. None of the patients had achieved good seizure control, either with regard to nodding episodes or other types of seizure.
4. Discussion
The present study collected neurophysiological and clinical data of 21 South Sudanese children affected by NS in order to better characterize this population and compare these cases with NS cases observed in Uganda and Tanzania. As a matter of fact, NS has so far been identified only in three different locations in Sub-Saharan Africa: South Sudan, northern Uganda and southern Tanzania. The main features of the syndrome, as reported in previously published papers, are summarized in Table 1. The reports lacking clinical and electrophysiological features were not included.
In spite of the fact that clinical and neurophysiological data detected in South Sudan were reported in great detail [
], to date no systematic study has been performed. In our study, no difference in prevalence between males and females was documented, in line with the International Conference on Nodding Syndrome (Kampala, 2012) [
]. The age of our children ranged between 6 and 14 years, and the age at seizure onset was 5–12 years, consistent with reports from Uganda and Tanzania [
], in our study this correlation between severity of developmental delay and seizure occurrence was not observed. As shown in Section 3 and in Table 2, the seizure frequency and abnormal EEG activity were equally distributed among children with mild, moderate or severe intellectual disability.
As regards interictal EEG findings, discharges of variable duration (from 1 to 10 s) of 2–3.5 Hz spikes and waves, above all on the bilateral anterior regions (fronto-centro-temporal and midline) were observed in most of the 21 cases, in line with reports from Uganda and Tanzania [
]. In most patients, epileptiform abnormalities were activated by hyperventilation. Moreover, the typical NS diffuse slowing in background activity (4–7 theta rhythms) was observed in 81% of the cases, consistent with Sejvar et al.’s study [
], it is found in Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and in some genetic epilepsies such as Dravet syndrome and myoclonic astatic epilepsy. In 14% of “Probable NS” subjects (3/18 cases), interictal EEG showed no epileptiform abnormality. This finding is not an exceptional event as it was observed both in patients from Tanzania and Uganda by Winkler et al. [
], interictal neurophysiological data are not considered an essential criterion for the diagnosis of NS. A puzzling finding is that patients – despite an interictal EEG without epileptiform abnormalities – did not only show head nodding seizures but also other types of seizures.
Seizures during EEG recording were observed in three patients, showing high-amplitude slow waves repeated in an almost periodic sequence in all of them. In two patients this activity was sometimes followed by an electrodecremental pattern with superimposed fast activity. When associated with clinical findings of nodding, these ictal EEG features are typical of epileptic spasm (ES) (Vigevano et al., 2001) [
]. Recently, many authors have described a cryptogenic or symptomatic epileptic encephalopathy characterized by late-onset variable ES associated with other types of seizures (mainly atypical absences, tonic spasms), interictal bilateral slow SW predominant over the fronto-temporal regions and cognitive deterioration after ES onset (Eisermann et al., 2006; Ishikawa et al., 2014) [
] conceded that this diagnosis was possible even if her Tanzanian patients showed signs more consistent with a diagnosis of atypical absences. Tumwine et al. [
] obtained the EEG of 32 NS patients and were able to record three nodding episodes consistent with isolated diffuse delta–theta slow waves followed by a brief and small fast discharge. This paroxysmal activity was observed to recur in a pseudo-periodical manner. In our study, the recording of diffuse slow waves corresponding to a spasm and the subsequent polyspike discharges corresponding to the tonic phase suggest that nodding seizures are late-onset ES. Clinical (age-related condition) and EEG (abnormal background activity similar to the well-known 4–7 rhythms) features suggest a genetic origin with possible different manifestations in the three countries. As evidence of phenotypic variability, the head nodding seizures during the EEG were induced by hyperventilation in our patients. It is important to note that the reflex nature of the crisis is demonstrated, although hyperventilation was never reported as trigger factor [
Assuming that NS is an epileptic encephalopathy with late-onset spasms, it would be important to document the evolution of the ictal and interictal EEGs in these subjects over time because the only longitudinal study performed so far did not provide any EEG data (Winkler et al., 2014) [
Despite NS is widely recognized as an epileptic encephalopathy, the level of intellectual disability is extremely variable. Generally the disease seems to be more severe in Uganda and South Sudan than in Tanzania [
]. In Tanzania, intellectual disability is reported in only 40% of the cases, according to the hypothesis that NS is not rapidly progressive and does not result in severe encephalopathy in this region [
]. All our patients presented with intellectual disability, which was mild in 12 (57%) cases, moderate in seven (33%) cases and severe in two (almost 10%) cases. This is a peculiar finding since published studies did not report the presence of intellectual disability in all NS patients [
]. Although it is well known that the severity of the disease is associated with more severe EEG findings with progressive worsening and loss of normal cerebral electrical architecture [
], we found no correlation between: disease duration and percentage of abnormal EEG activity; disease duration and severity of intellectual disability; and percentage of abnormal EEG activity and severity of intellectual disability. It may therefore be assumed that the variability in the clinical evolution of NS depends on unknown factors (genetic susceptibility, food effects or response to AEDs).
All our patients were on AEDs but none of them achieved good seizure control with the available drugs. On the contrary, based on the specific interictal and ictal EEG patterns, clinical manifestations, and on the experience of other researchers, valproic acid would seem to be the first-choice antiepileptic drug. In Idro et al.’s study [
], valproate led to an almost 60% reduction in total seizures, including clusters of nodding. Moreover, should the diagnosis of ES be confirmed, many other treatments could be tried such as pyridoxine, vigabatrin and steroids.
5. Study limitations
First, a standardized test was not available. Intellectual disability was rated according to the ability to perform daily life activities. Furthermore, serial follow-up data on cognitive impairment were not available and an intellectual regression was speculated only based on the patient's medical history.
Second, no screening test for infectious or toxin markers was performed.
6. Conclusion
This study confirms that NS is an encephalopathy and intellectual disabilities do seem to be partially independent of seizure frequency or pathological activity on the EEG in some cases, even if multiple possible confounders (including inadequacy of treatment, lag time to treatment, age at onset, and the small sample size upon which this conclusion was drawn) may play a role. However, our assumption is that NS is a form of epileptic encephalopathy with late-onset ES as possible genetic background. In point of fact, consistent with Winkler et al. [
] our data showed a positive family history of epilepsy (both generalized tonic–clonic and head nodding seizures) and a peculiar EEG pattern. Furthermore, environmental factors such as infectious may play a role [
]. Nevertheless, the natural history of NS is not well-known so far and accurate clinical, longitudinal video-EEG, and genetic prospective research are needed to verify our causative hypothesis.
NS in South Sudan presents with clinical and neurophysiological features which are similar to those described in northern Uganda and more severe than in Tanzania.
For a more accurate classification of this syndrome, follow-up studies are needed in order to ensure appropriate monitoring of the disease for a number of years since its onset. Specialist centers in the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy such as “Usratuna” could become Reference Centers for the syndrome by contributing to the description of the natural history of the disease as well as providing care to the affected children and their families. By “providing care” to children with NS we mean to help their families to overcome the severe stigma of social exclusion which is often associated with the disease. As proposed by the WHO, the key professionals best suited to perform this tricky work are Community-based Rehabilitation (CBR) workers. In fact, the CBR approach is a capable model in that it ensures surveillance, case detection, support to family members at household level and promotion of case management at health center level through referral systems and constant follow-up of the cases. If properly trained, CBR workers can work closely with neurologists and clinical officers and provide valuable support for patients as well as help developing a better understanding of a disease which remains a mystery under many aspects.
Conflict of interest statement
The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this publication.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Maria Rosa Rogora for her support in daily management of the Center; she helped with electronic data collection of all epileptic patients and was the operational link between Usratuna in South Sudan and Scientific Institute E. Medea in Italy. The authors are also grateful to: the Italian Non-Governmental Organization “OVCI La Nostra Famiglia” in the person of Andrea Bollini, chief of the cooperative project in Usratuna, for his tireless work as connection with the local political authorities; Maimona Adura (Nurse), assistant in the Epilepsy Unit of Usratuna; Francesca Villanova (EEG Technician in Conegliano) for setting up the EEG Laboratory in Usratuna.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
The following are the supplementary data to this article:
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